Math in LaTeX: the basics

Put short formulas in the text between $ ... $, and give larger ones their own line with \[ ... \]. Inside, ^ raises and _ lowers, \frac{a}{b} makes a fraction and \sqrt{x} a square root.

Inline and display math

Math in the running text goes between dollar signs, or between \( and \). A formula on its own centred line goes between \[ and \].

Inline math and display math

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Einstein's formula $E = mc^2$ fits in a sentence.
So does \(a^2 + b^2 = c^2\). Larger formulas get a line
of their own:
\[
  x = \frac{-b \pm \sqrt{b^2 - 4ac}}{2a}
\]

$$ ... $$ works too, but \[ ... \] is the form recommended for LaTeX. To number a formula, use the equation environment; see Equations, alignment and numbering.

Spaces in math are ignored: LaTeX spaces formulas by itself. $a+b$ and $a + b$ look the same.

Superscripts and subscripts

^ raises the next character and _ lowers it. For more than one character, use braces.

x^2 \qquad x_i \qquad x^{10} \qquad a_{ij} \qquad
e^{-x^2} \qquad x_1^2 \qquad {}^{14}\mathrm{C}

Without braces, x^10 gives x¹0: only the 1 is raised.

Fractions and roots

\frac{1}{2} + \frac{a+b}{c} \qquad \sqrt{2} \qquad
\sqrt[3]{x^2+1} \qquad \binom{44}{2} = 946

Sums, integrals and limits

Big operators take their limits with _ and ^. In display math the limits go below and above; inline, they go to the side to save space.

Sums, products, integrals and limits

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Inline: $\sum_{k=1}^{n} k = \frac{n(n+1)}{2}$.
\[
  \sum_{k=1}^{n} k^2 \qquad \prod_{i=1}^{n} x_i \qquad
  \int_0^\infty e^{-x}\,dx = 1 \qquad
  \lim_{x \to 0} \frac{\sin x}{x} = 1
\]

\, before dx adds the thin space that is usual in integrals. Function names such as \sin, \log, \exp and \lim are set upright; for a name LaTeX does not know, write \operatorname{rank} or define it with \DeclareMathOperator (see Your own commands). All symbols are listed in the symbols reference.

Text inside formulas

Letters in math are set in italic as variables, and spaces are dropped. For words, use \text{...}; for upright letters such as units or a "d", use \mathrm{...}.

f(x) = x^2 \quad \text{for all } x > 0, \qquad
v = 44\,\mathrm{km/h}, \qquad \frac{\mathrm{d}y}{\mathrm{d}x}

Greek letters and symbols

Greek letters are commands with their names: \alpha, \beta, \pi, and capitals such as \Gamma and \Omega. See the Greek letters page for all of them.

\alpha + \beta = \gamma, \quad \Delta x \to 0, \quad
\forall \varepsilon > 0, \quad x \in \mathbb{R}, \quad
a \leq b \neq c \approx 44

Brackets that grow

Plain brackets keep their size. \left( and \right) make a pair that grows with what is between them. This works for ( ), [ ], \{ \} and |.

(\frac{1}{2}) \qquad \left(\frac{1}{2}\right) \qquad
\left[ \sum_{i=1}^{n} x_i \right]^2 \qquad
\left\{ x : x > 0 \right\}

For absolute values, plain |x| gives the tightest spacing in Scissor LaTeX; \left| x \right| and \lvert x \rvert work but add a little space inside the bars. Angle brackets are \langle and \rangle, which also grow with \left and \right.

When a formula cannot be read

If a formula contains a command that Scissor LaTeX does not know, that formula is shown as red source code, and the Problems tab names it with its line. The rest of the document typesets normally.

The vector $\symbf{v}$ is not available,
but $\boldsymbol{v}$ is.

Commands known to show a red formula include \sideset, \symbf, \qedhere and the commands of the physics package such as \abs and \dv.

A formula never stops the whole document. \partial, \langle, \rangle, \cap, \oplus, \otimes, \hbar and Vmatrix, which did in earlier versions, typeset as in LaTeX; see When the whole document does not typeset.

Typing the Unicode character directly works too: ∂ for \partial, ⟨ and ⟩ for the angle brackets, ⊕ for \oplus.

Unicode characters for \partial, \langle and \oplus

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The gradient is
$\frac{∂ f}{∂ x}$, the inner product $⟨ u, v ⟩$,
and the direct sum $U ⊕ V$.

Typed characters work in XeLaTeX and LuaLaTeX with the unicode-math package, but not with plain pdfLaTeX. If you will compile the document elsewhere with pdfLaTeX, use the commands.

What differs from a TeX installation

What works from the math packages is listed on the amsmath and amssymb pages. The full manuals are at ctan.org/pkg/amsmath and ctan.org/pkg/amsfonts.

Every example on this page is typeset by Scissor LaTeX when the site is built. Last updated 2026-11-07.